Module 17
Infancy & Childhood
Psychology 1: General Psychology
J. Marie Hicks, Ph.D. Adjunct Psychology [email protected]
INTRODUCTION (CONTD)
Developmental psychologists
Study a persons biological, emotional, cognitive, personal, and social development across the life span, from infancy through late adulthood
2
CONCEPTION & DEVELOPMENT
Prenatal period: three stages
Prenatal period extends from conception to birth and lasts about 266 days (9 months)
Three successive phases
germinal
embryonic
fetal
During prenatal period, a single cell will divide and grow to form 200 billion cells
Germinal stage
first stage of prenatal development
two-week period following conception
Ovulation
release of an ovum or egg cell from a womens ovaries
Conception or fertilization
occurs if one of the millions of sperm penetrates the ovums outer membrane
after penetration, outer membrane becomes impenetrable to the millions of remaining sperm
fertilized ovum is called zygote
Embryonic stage
Second stage of the prenatal period
Spans the 2 to 8 weeks that follow conception
During this stage, cells divide and begin to differentiate into bone, muscle, and body organs
Fetal stage
Begins two months after conception and lasts until birth
Fetus develops vital organs, such as lungs, and physical characteristics that are distinctly human
During embryonic and fetal stages, the developing organism is especially vulnerable to toxic agents
Protected by the placenta
3
PRENATAL INFLUENCES
Placenta and teratogens
Placenta: organ that connects the blood
supply of the mother to that of the fetus
and acts like a filter, allows oxygen and
nutrients to pass through while keeping
out some toxic or harmful substances
Teratogen: any agent that can harm a developing
fetus (cause deformities or brain damage)
Birth defects and amniocentesis
Possible to test during fetal
stage for a number of genetic
errors
Amniocentesis
Downs syndrome
Placenta and teratogens
Placenta
organ that connects the blood supply of the mother to that of the fetus
acts like a filter: allows oxygen and nutrients to pass through while keeping out some toxic or harmful substances
Teratogen
any agent that can harm a developing fetus (cause deformities or brain damage)
disease, drug, or other environmental agent
Birth defects and amniocentesis
Possible to test during fetal stage for a number of genetic errors
Amniocentesis
medical test done between weeks 14 and 20 of pregnancy
involves inserting a long needle through the mothers abdominal muscles into the amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus
fetal cells are analyzed in the fluid
more than 450 genetic disorders can now be tested and identified
Birth defects and amniocentesis
Downs syndrome
results from extra 21st chromosome
causes abnormal physical traits
fold of skin at the corner of each eye, wide tongue, heart defects
abnormal brain development, resulting in degrees of mental retardation
4
PRENATAL INFLUENCES (CONTD)
Drugs and prenatal development
Drug use during pregnancy
Caffeine
Cocaine and other drugs
Smoking and nicotine
Alcohol
heavy drinking; fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
moderate drinking; fetal alcohol effects (FAE)
The environment and prenatal development
Lead
Air pollutants
Drugs and prenatal development
Drug use during pregnancy
caffeine
as little as one cup of coffee a day increases risk of having an underweight baby
cocaine and other drugs
pregnant women using drugs such as alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, or opiates had babies with
lower birth weight
poor feeding habits
greater risk for developing other problems
Smoking and nicotine
13% of pregnant women smoke
increases the risk of
ADHD (three times the risk)
low birth weight
pre-term deliveries
possible physical problems
SIDS
respiratory infections
Alcohol
heavy drinking; fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
FAS results from a mother drinking heavily during pregnancy, especially in the first 12 weeks
FAS results in
short stature, flattened nose, short eye openings, neurological changes, hyperactivity, impulsive behavior, deficits in information processing, drug and alcohol abuse
moderate drinking; fetal alcohol effects (FAE)
FAS results from a mother having 7 to 14 drinks per week during pregnancy
FAE less severe than FAS
FAE results in
deficiencies in cognitive tasks, academic skills, fine motor speed, and coordination
The environment and prenatal development
Lead
levels of lead in the blood system are associated with low IQ scores in children
likelihood of antisocial acts such as, assaults, truancy, and disorderly conduct
some lead sources = paint, gasoline, industrial products
Air pollutants
prenatal exposure to air pollutants, such as gasoline, diesel, and coal have negative impact on childrens cognitive development
5
NEWBORNS ABILITIES (CONTD)
Genetic development program
Mother contributes 23 chromosomes and father contributes 23 chromosomes
Each child receives a unique genetic program
Brain growth
Genetic program (after birth) regulates how the brain develops
Makes thousands of connections between neurons
6
NEWBORNS ABILITIES (CONTD)
Sensory development
Faces
4 months vs. 3 to 4 years
Hearing
one-month-olds vs. at 6 months
Touch
Smell and taste
infants at one-day-old vs. six-week-old infants
newborns
Depth perception
at 6 months
visual cliff
Sensory development
Faces
newborns show a preference for their mothers face over strangers faces the first few days after birth
newborns recognize a persons eyes
4 months
infant can visually distinguish his or her mothers face from strangers
3 to 4 years
visual abilities are equal to those of an adult
Sensory development
Hearing
one-month-olds have very keen hearing
can discriminate small sound vibrations
at 6 months, have developed the ability to make all sounds necessary to learn language
Touch
have well-developed sense of touch
will turn head when lightly touched on the cheek
touch also elicits other reflexes such as grasping and sucking
Smell and taste
infants at one-day-old can discriminate a few odors such as citrus and floral
six-week-old infants can smell the difference between their mother and a stranger
newborns have an inborn preference for both sweet and salt, dislike of bitter-tasting things
Depth perception
at 6 months, infants have developed depth perception
visual cliff
7
NEWBORNS ABILITIES (CONTD)
Motor development
Refers to the stages of motor skills that all infants pass through as they acquire the muscular control necessary for making coordinated movements
Proximodistal principle: Center to extremities
Cephalocaudal principle: Head to tail
Maturation
Developmental norms
Environmental stimulation
Motor development
Refers to the stages of motor skills that all infants pass through as they acquire the muscular control necessary for making coordinated movements
Proximodistal principle
states that parts closer to the center of the infants body develop before parts farther away
Cephalocaudal principle
states that parts of the body closer to the head develop before parts closer to the feet
Maturation
refers to developmental changes that are genetically or biologically programmed rather than acquired through learning or life experiences
Developmental norms
refers to the average age at which children perform various kinds of skills or exhibit abilities or behaviors
major milestones in infants motor development
crawling, walking
Environmental stimulation
appropriate stimulation for forming the visual system, learning to speak, emotional development, and motor development
infants cant perform complex cognitive, sensory or motor tasks, such as walking, talking, and reading until appropriate areas of their brains develop neural connections
genetic program needs and interacts with environmental stimulation to develop sensory, motor, and cognitive abilities
8
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Definition
Refers to the influence and interaction of genetic factors, brain changes, cognitive factors, coping abilities, and cultural factors in the development of emotional behaviors, expressions, thoughts, and feelings
Temperament
Refers to relatively stable and long-lasting individual differences in mood and emotional behavior that emerge early in childhood; largely influenced by genetic factors
Temperament and emotions
Easy vs. Slow-to-warm-up vs. Difficult babies
No-single-category babies
Genetic influence vs. Environmental influence
Definition
Refers to the influence and interaction of genetic factors, brain changes, cognitive factors, coping abilities, and cultural factors in the development of emotional behaviors, expressions, thoughts, and feelings
Temperament
Refers to relatively stable and long-lasting individual differences in mood and emotional behavior that emerge early in childhood; largely influenced by genetic factors
Temperament and emotions
Easy babies: happy and cheerful, regular sleeping and eating habits, adapted quickly to new situations
Slow-to-warm-up babies: more withdrawn, moody, and tended to take longer to adapt to new situations
Difficult babies: fussy, fearful of new situations, and more intense in their reactions
No-single-category babies: 35% of sample had variety of traits and couldnt be classified into one of the other three categories
Genetic influence
infants develop distinct temperaments very early, usually in the first 2 to 3 months of life
occur largely because of genetic factors rather than learning experiences
Environmental influence
involves factors such as family influence, poverty level, educational opportunities, and social class
interact with and can change the infants initial temperament
9
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CONTD)
Temperament and emotions
Attachment
close, fundamental emotional bond that develops between the infant and his or her parents or caregiver
Attachment
Separation anxiety
Kinds of attachments
Kind of attachment formed in infancy is thought to be associated with the success of future adult relationships
Secure
Insecure
Temperament and emotions
Attachment
close, fundamental emotional bond that develops between the infant and his or her parents or caregiver
as a child shows closer attachment, he or she shows more distress when parents or caregivers temporarily leave
Attachment
Separation anxiety
infants distress whenever parents leave Absolutely normal, has to do with development of object permanence, not attachment issues
Kinds of attachments
Kind of attachment formed in infancy is thought to be associated with the success of future adult relationships
Secure
characteristic of infants who use their parent as a safe home base from which they can wander off and explore their environments
associated with being better at resolving conflicts, being more trusting, enjoying relationships, and dealing better with anxiety
Insecure
characteristic of infants who avoid or show ambivalence or resistance toward parents
associated with being dependent, having poor social relationships, and showing more anxiety
10
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Piagets theory
Cognitive development
refers to how a person perceives, thinks, and gains understanding of his or her world through the interaction and influence of genetic and learned factors
Jean Piaget
greatest impact on developmental psychology with cognitive development – both biologist and psychologist
Assimilation
process by which a child uses old methods or experiences to deal with new situations
Accommodation
process by which a child changes old methods to deal with or adjust to new situations
Piagets theory
Cognitive development
refers to how a person perceives, thinks, and gains understanding of his or her world through the interaction and influence of genetic and learned factors
Jean Piaget
greatest impact on developmental psychology with cognitive development
both biologist and psychologist
Assimilation
process by which a child uses old methods or experiences to deal with new situations
Accommodation
process by which a child changes old methods to deal with or adjust to new situations
11
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (CONTD)
Piagets four stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor stage
Preoperational stage
Concrete operations
Formal operations
Piagets four stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor stage
Birth to age 2
infants interact with and learn about their environments by relating their sensory experiences to their motor experiences
Object permanence
develops over a period of 9 months
refers to the understanding that objects or events continue to exist even if they can no longer be heard, touched, or seen
2. Preoperational stage
About age 2 to 7 years
children learn to use symbols, such as words or mental images, to solve simple problems and to think or talk about things that arent present
Conservation
the fact that even though the shape of some object or substance changes, the total amount stays the same
Egocentric thinking
viewing the world only from your own perspective and having difficulty appreciating someone elses
3. Concrete operations
About age 7 to 11 years
Children can perform a number of logical mental operations on concrete objects (physically present)
Conservation
children gradually master the concept of conservation during the concrete operations stage
Classification
ability to classify items by color and size for example
still have difficulty figuring out relationships among objects that arent present or imaginary situations
4. Formal operations
About age 12 to adulthood
Adolescents and adults develop the ability to think about and solve abstract problems in a logical manner
Adolescents develop thinking and reasoning typical of adults
Ability to think in a logical, systematic, and abstract way is one of the major characteristics of the formal operations stage
12
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Social development
How a person develops a sense of self or a self-identity, relationships with others, and the kinds of social skills important in personal interactions
Freuds psychosexual stages
Five different developmental periods
oral
anal
phallic
latency
genital
Social development
Individual seeks pleasure from different areas of the body that are associated with sexual feelings
Freud
childs first five years are most important to social and personality development
Oral stage
Early infancy to 18 months
Pleasure seeking is around the mouth
Sucking, chewing, and biting
If fixated at this stage due to oral wishes being gratified too much or too little, could continue in adulthood seeking oral gratification
Anal stage
1.5 to 3 years
Infants pleasure seeking is centered on the anus and its functions of elimination
If fixated, will exhibit behavioral activities in either retention or elimination
retention
may take form of being neat, stingy, or rigid
elimination
may take form of being generous or messy
Phallic stage
3 to 6 years (early childhood)
Pleasure seeking is centered on the genitals
Competes with parent of same sex for affections and pleasures of the parent of the opposite sex
May result in feelings of inferiority for women and of having something to prove for men
Latency stage
6 to puberty (middle to late childhood)
Child represses sexual thoughts and engages in nonsexual activities
developing social and intellectual skills
During puberty, sexuality reappears
Genital stage
Puberty to adulthood
Individual has renewed sexual desires that he or she seeks to fulfill through relationships with members of the opposite sex
Successful resolution of the conflicts in the first three stages will lead to having energy to develop loving relationships and a healthy and mature personality
13
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (CONTD)
Eriksons psychosocial stages
Eight developmental periods encompassing the individuals development over their entire lifespan, during which an individuals primary goal is to satisfy desires associated with social needs
trust
autonomy
initiative
industry
identity
intimacy
generativity
ego integrity
Eriksons psychosocial stages
Trust versus mistrust
early infancy through the first year
if parents are sensitive and responsive to the childs needs, basic trust will develop
if parents neglect needs, the child may view the world as uncaring and learn to become mistrustful
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
late infancy (1 to 3 years)
battle of wills between parents wishes and childs desires to do as he or she pleases
if parents encourage the child to explore, a sense of independence develops
if parents disapprove or punish the childs explorations, he or she may develop a feeling that independence is bad and feel shame and doubt
Initiative versus guilt
early childhood (3 to 5 years)
child develops a number of social skills that are expected to be used to meet challenges
if parents encourage initiative, the child will develop the ability to plan and initiate new things
if parents discourage initiative, the child may feel guilty or uncomfortable or may feel unable to plan the future
Industry versus inferiority
middle and late childhood (5 to 12 years)
child needs to direct energy into working and completing tasks
develops a feeling of industry
if child has difficulty applying and completing work, he or she may develop a feeling of inferiority and incompetence
Identity versus role confusion
adolescence
if child is successful making the change to adolescence, he or she will develop a sense of confidence and a positive identity
if child is unsuccessful, he or she will experience role confusion
results in having low self-esteem and becoming socially withdrawn
14
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (CONTD)
Banduras social cognitive theory
Emphasizes the importance of learning through observation, imitation, and self-reward
Not necessary to perform any observable behaviors or receive any external rewards to learn new social skills because many behaviors are self-motivated
Vulnerability
Resiliency
Gender identity
Gender roles
Social role theory
Cognitive developmental theory
Gender schemas
Evolutionary theory
Banduras social cognitive theory
Emphasizes the importance of learning through observation, imitation, and self-reward
Not necessary to perform any observable behaviors or receive any external rewards to learn new social skills because many behaviors are self-motivated
Vulnerability
refers to psychological or environmental difficulties that make children more at risk for developing later personality, behavioral, or social problems
Resiliency
refers to various personality, family, or environmental factors that compensate for increased life stresses so that expected problems dont develop
Gender identity
refers to the individuals subjective experience and feelings of being a female or male
Gender roles
traditional or stereotypical behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that parents, peers, and society expect us to have because were male or female
Social role theory
emphasizes the influence of social and cognitive processes on how we interpret, organize, and use information
emphasizes social and cultural influences
states that gender differences between men and women arise from different divisions of labor
Cognitive developmental theory
children develop mental skills and interact with their environments, learn one set of rules for male behaviors and another set for female
Gender schemas
sets of information and rules organized around how either a male or a female should think and behave
Evolutionary theory
emphasizes genetic and biological forces
current gender differences are a continuation of the behaviors that evolved from early men and women
adapted these different behaviors in their attempts to survive the problems of their time
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