Global trade and 18th-century

Across cultures
Across cultures, an
introduction
Browse across cultures
2000–today
Wendy Red Star, 1880
Crow Peace
Delegation
Yinka Shonibare, The
Swing (After
Fragonard)
Kehinde Wiley,
Napoleon Leading the
Army over the Alps
Doris Salcedo,
Shibboleth
1900–2000
Presentation of Fijian
Mats and Tapa Cloths
to Queen Elizabeth II
Alfredo Jaar, A Logo
for America
Wilfredo Lam, The
Jungle
Nampeyo (Hopi-
Tewa), polychrome
jar
Diego Rivera, Detroit
Industry Murals
Jaune Quick-to-See
Smith, Trade (Gifts for
Trading Land with
White People)
Michel Tu!ery,
Pisupo Lua Afe
1800–1900
Orientalism
Baron Antoine-Jean
Gros, Napoleon
Bonaparte Visiting the
Pest House in Ja!a
Paikea at the
American Museum of
Natural History
Early Scienti”c
Exploration in Latin
America
The Reception of
African Art in the
West
1700–1800
Tipu’s Tiger
Global trade and an
18th-century
Anishinaabe out”t
The European
Palaces of the
Qianlong Emperor,
Beijing
Fourteen portraits of
the Inka Kings
1600–1700
Di!erent Places:
Japanese porcelain
and English giltbronze
mounts
A portrait of St.
Francis Xavier and
Christianity in Japan
A Still Life of Global
Dimensions: Antonio
de Pereda’s Still Life
with Ebony Chest
The Abduction of
Helen Tapestry
Screen with the Siege
of Belgrade and
Hunting Scene (or
Brooklyn Biombo)
Bichitr, Jahangir
Preferring a Su”
Shaikh to Kings
Benin plaque:
Equestrian Oba and
Attendants
1500–1600
Introduction to the
Spanish Viceroyalties
in the Americas
Alejo Fernández,
Virgin of the
Navigators
The Medici collect
the Americas
Atrial Cross at
Acolman
The manuscripts of
Luis de Carvajal
1400–1500
Hagia Sophia as a
mosque
The David Vases
African art and the
e!ects of European
contact and
colonization
Kilwa Kisiwani,
Tanzania
Lusterware as luxury
At the crossroads of
Eastern and Western
Christianity: the
church of St.
Nicholas
1300–1400
Mohammed ibn al-
Zain, Basin
(Baptistère de Saint
Louis)
1200–1300
500A–lt1n2e0u0shul, Prague
The Great Mosque of
Kairouan
Introduction to
Chaco Canyon
Camel from San
Baudelio de Berlanga
A Global Middle Ages
through the Pages of
Decorated Books
Musical imagery in
the Global Middle
Ages
Before 500
The Sta! God at
Chavín de Huántar
and beyond
Multilingualism along
the Nile
Temple of
Baalshamin, Palmyra
Petra: rock-cut
façades
Gold and jade crown,
Silla Kingdom
Benin plaque: Equestrian Oba and
Attendants
by GREG STUART
Royal history rendered in brass
This remarkable
brass plaque,
dated between
1550-1680, depicts
an Oba (or king)
and his attendants
from the Benin
Empire—a
powerful kingdom
located in presentday
Nigeria. We
know that the
central !gure is an
Oba because of his
distinctive coral
beaded regalia.
Also, attendants
hold shields above
his head, either to
protect him from
attack or possibly
from the hot,
tropical sun. This
was a privilege
only a”orded to an
Oba.
The !gures around him range in size, not because of their actual height or
distance from the Oba, but rather due to their level of importance within the
court. This convention of sizing human !gures based on status is known as
“hierarchic scale” and is found in artwork from cultures around the world and
across time. The Oba would have travelled with a large cohort of attendants,
warriors, servants, diplomats, chieftains, and priests.
The plaque originally hung alongside many others on posts throughout the palace
of the Oba. The order of their placement on these posts would have told the
history of the royal lineage of Benin’s Obas, who traced their dynasty all the way
back to Oranmiyan, whose son was the !rst Oba of Benin. However, the sequence
of plaques is lost to us since they were long held in storage when found by
westerners in the 19th century. You may notice that the Oba rides sidesaddle on
horseback, which would seem to indicate a connection to Oba Esigie (who ruled c.
1504-1550), the !rst Oba to travel by horse. However, without knowing the original
order of the plaques, we will never know for certain whether this was Esigie, or a
later Oba who emulated his brash new mode of travel.
Artists working in brass were organized under Esigie. Today, artists working in
brass in Benin are part of a brass workers guild, and it was likely that previous
generations would have also worked collectively. These artists created plaques
and other sculptures using what is known as the “lost wax casting technique,” in
which, !rst, a more malleable wax version of the !nal brass work is made. It is
then covered in clay and !red to harden the clay, removing the wax, which melts
away in the process (hence the term, “lost wax”). Hot, molten liquid brass is then
poured into the clay mold. As the brass cools, it hardens, and the clay is removed,
revealing the !nished plaque.
Crossing cultures: a record of trade
Almost every detail in this work speaks to the Benin Kingdom’s mutually bene!cial
trade with Portugal, which !rst made contact with Benin in the late 15th century.
The Portuguese received items like peppers, cloth, and stone beads from Benin,
while Benin received—among other items—the coral that makes up the beads
worn by the Oba, and even the brass that makes up this plaque in the form of
manillas, or armbands, worn by the Portuguese, which would have been melted
down as the raw material for this plaque.
The rosette
shapes that
adorn the
background of
the plaque were
possibly derived
from Christian
crosses brought
by these
European
traders. Even the
horse that the
Oba rides was
originally
introduced to
West Africa from
across the sea.
There is nothing
quite like these
plaques in all of
Africa or Europe from this period, and some scholars speculate that they were
created as a way of reconciling traditional African brass sculptural forms with the
illustrated books and prints that may have been in the possession of European
travelers.
Troubled Legacy
Trade began to decline with Portugal as the Portuguese empire waned in the 18th
century. By the 19th century, Britain was seeking to make inroads with Benin as a
new trading partner. However, this partnership was much less mutually bene!cial
and was marked with frequent tension. After increased aggression from both
nations, the British launched the Punitive Expedition of 1897, seizing the Oba’s
palace, burning down the city around it, killing many, and looting the royal court’s
vast stores of art and treasure.
We know
that this
plaque
was one
of the
artworks
looted in
the siege
because
Norman
Burrows,
a known
tra#cker
in stolen
Benin
objects,
owned it
brie$y
during
this
time.
This act
of
looting
perpetrated by the British was later condemned as a criminal and violent act of
British imperialism and colonialism. As such, there are many who believe that
objects such as this plaque should be returned to the people of Benin, who
remain deeply connected to their history and cultural traditions. However, there
are others who feel that these remarkable objects are part of the world’s heritage,
and thus should remain in museum collections around the world as testament to
this artistically rich culture.
Backstory
A consortium of European museums called the “Benin Dialogue Group,” formed in
2007, has been meeting with representatives from Nigeria to discuss issues
around repatriation. Their hope is to establish a system of rotating loans of
artworks to Benin City, though the security and guaranteed return of the objects is
a point of ongoing discussion, set to continue at a conference in 2018. The
consortium includes representatves from the British Museum and Berlin’s
Humboldtforum, two of the institutions that hold the largest collections of objects
from Benin. Other members of the group include museums in Cambridge, Vienna,
Stockholm, Leiden, Leipzig and Dresden, Oxford, and Hamburg, and London.
Museums in the United States and France, which also hold signi!cant numbers of
Benin artworks, have yet to become formally involved, though some, such as the
Musée du Quai Branly-Jacques Chirac in Paris, have been approached directly with
restitution claims from Nigeria.
The ongoing dialogue between museums and nations from which important
objects, like those from Benin, were forcibly removed, highlights the complexities
of the current, post-colonial world. Should formerly colonized areas be repaid for
the damage in$icted on them by colonial powers? Who is responsible for doing so,
and how? Who has the ethical right to the ownership, display, and preservation of
these important pieces of cultural heritage? The formation of consortia like the
Benin Dialogue Group is a signi!cant !rst step towards resolving some of these
thorny and pressing questions.
Backstory by Dr. Naraelle Hohensee
Additional resources:
Alice Apley, “African Lost-Wax Casting” on the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s
Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History
The Art of Africa: A Resource for Educators (publication by The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, available online)
“Origins and Empire: The Benin, Owo, and Ijebu Kingdoms” on the Metropolitan
Museum of Art’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History
Benin chronology on The Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Heilbrunn Timeline of
Art History
Benin from the Dallas Museum of Art
Kate Ezra, Royal Arts of Benin: The Perls Collection (New York: The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, 1992).
Barbara Plankensteiner, (ed.). Benin Kings and Rituals: Court Arts from
Nigeria (Ghent, Belgium: Snoeck Publishers, 2007).
“Looted Benin bronzes to be lent back to Nigeria,” The Art Newspaper, October
16, 2017
Smarthistory images for teaching and learning:
More Smarthistory images…
Plaque: Equestrian Oba and Attendants, Edo peoples (Benin
Kingdom), 1550–1680, brass, 19 7/16 x 16 1/2 x 4 1/2″ /
49.5 x 41.9 x 11.4 cm (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Plaque (detail): Equestrian Oba and Attendants, Edo peoples (Benin Kingdom),
1550–1680, brass, 19 7/16 x 16 1/2 x 4 1/2″ / 49.5 x 41.9 x 11.4 cm (The
Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Manilla, Benin Kingdom, Nigeria, 17th century (?). Brass, 24 x 26 x 8 cm
(Museum für Völkerkunde Wein, coll. A. Maschmann)
Rosette shape and !gure (detail), plaque: Equestrian Oba and
Attendants, Edo peoples (Benin Kingdom), 1550–1680, brass,
19 7/16 x 16 1/2 x 4 1/2″ / 49.5 x 41.9 x 11.4 cm (The
Metropolitan Museum of Art)
British soldiers sit surrounded by Benin works of art during the
British Punitive Expedition of 1897 (documentary photograph by Sir
Harry Holdsworth Rawson)
Cite this page as: Greg Stuart, “Benin plaque: Equestrian Oba and
Attendants,” in Smarthistory, September 14, 2018, accessed April 29,
2021, https://smarthistory.org/benin-plaque-equestrian-oba-andattendants-
2/.
Browse Smarthistory images for teaching &
learning!
Sign up for our newsletter!
Receive occasional emails about new Smarthistory content.
Your email address Suubbssccrriibbee
Smarthistory is a nonpro!t organization
At Smarthistory we believe art has the power to
transform lives and to build understanding across
cultures. We believe that the brilliant histories of
art belong to everyone, no matter their
background. Smarthistory’s free, award-winning
digital content unlocks the expertise of hundreds
of leading scholars, making the history of art
accessible and engaging to more people, in more
places, than any other provider.
Donate
Subscribe to our newsletter
Contact Us
About Smarthistory
Smarthistory’s blog
Contribute an essay
Content editors and
contributors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License
Search
!
SMARTHISTORY COMMONS
Webinar, Wednesday May 5, 1 pm eastern


Get Professional Assignment Help Cheaply

Buy Custom Essay

Don't use plagiarized sources. Get Your Custom Essay on
Global trade and 18th-century
Just from $9/Page
Order Essay

Are you busy and do not have time to handle your assignment? Are you scared that your paper will not make the grade? Do you have responsibilities that may hinder you from turning in your assignment on time? Are you tired and can barely handle your assignment? Are your grades inconsistent?

Whichever your reason is, it is valid! You can get professional academic help from our service at affordable rates. We have a team of professional academic writers who can handle all your assignments.

Why Choose Our Academic Writing Service?

  • Plagiarism free papers
  • Timely delivery
  • Any deadline
  • Skilled, Experienced Native English Writers
  • Subject-relevant academic writer
  • Adherence to paper instructions
  • Ability to tackle bulk assignments
  • Reasonable prices
  • 24/7 Customer Support
  • Get superb grades consistently

Online Academic Help With Different Subjects

Literature

Students barely have time to read. We got you! Have your literature essay or book review written without having the hassle of reading the book. You can get your literature paper custom-written for you by our literature specialists.

Finance

Do you struggle with finance? No need to torture yourself if finance is not your cup of tea. You can order your finance paper from our academic writing service and get 100% original work from competent finance experts.

Computer science

Computer science is a tough subject. Fortunately, our computer science experts are up to the match. No need to stress and have sleepless nights. Our academic writers will tackle all your computer science assignments and deliver them on time. Let us handle all your python, java, ruby, JavaScript, php , C+ assignments!

Psychology

While psychology may be an interesting subject, you may lack sufficient time to handle your assignments. Don’t despair; by using our academic writing service, you can be assured of perfect grades. Moreover, your grades will be consistent.

Engineering

Engineering is quite a demanding subject. Students face a lot of pressure and barely have enough time to do what they love to do. Our academic writing service got you covered! Our engineering specialists follow the paper instructions and ensure timely delivery of the paper.

Nursing

In the nursing course, you may have difficulties with literature reviews, annotated bibliographies, critical essays, and other assignments. Our nursing assignment writers will offer you professional nursing paper help at low prices.

Sociology

Truth be told, sociology papers can be quite exhausting. Our academic writing service relieves you of fatigue, pressure, and stress. You can relax and have peace of mind as our academic writers handle your sociology assignment.

Business

We take pride in having some of the best business writers in the industry. Our business writers have a lot of experience in the field. They are reliable, and you can be assured of a high-grade paper. They are able to handle business papers of any subject, length, deadline, and difficulty!

Statistics

We boast of having some of the most experienced statistics experts in the industry. Our statistics experts have diverse skills, expertise, and knowledge to handle any kind of assignment. They have access to all kinds of software to get your assignment done.

Law

Writing a law essay may prove to be an insurmountable obstacle, especially when you need to know the peculiarities of the legislative framework. Take advantage of our top-notch law specialists and get superb grades and 100% satisfaction.

What discipline/subjects do you deal in?

We have highlighted some of the most popular subjects we handle above. Those are just a tip of the iceberg. We deal in all academic disciplines since our writers are as diverse. They have been drawn from across all disciplines, and orders are assigned to those writers believed to be the best in the field. In a nutshell, there is no task we cannot handle; all you need to do is place your order with us. As long as your instructions are clear, just trust we shall deliver irrespective of the discipline.

Are your writers competent enough to handle my paper?

Our essay writers are graduates with bachelor's, masters, Ph.D., and doctorate degrees in various subjects. The minimum requirement to be an essay writer with our essay writing service is to have a college degree. All our academic writers have a minimum of two years of academic writing. We have a stringent recruitment process to ensure that we get only the most competent essay writers in the industry. We also ensure that the writers are handsomely compensated for their value. The majority of our writers are native English speakers. As such, the fluency of language and grammar is impeccable.

What if I don’t like the paper?

There is a very low likelihood that you won’t like the paper.

Reasons being:

  • When assigning your order, we match the paper’s discipline with the writer’s field/specialization. Since all our writers are graduates, we match the paper’s subject with the field the writer studied. For instance, if it’s a nursing paper, only a nursing graduate and writer will handle it. Furthermore, all our writers have academic writing experience and top-notch research skills.
  • We have a quality assurance that reviews the paper before it gets to you. As such, we ensure that you get a paper that meets the required standard and will most definitely make the grade.

In the event that you don’t like your paper:

  • The writer will revise the paper up to your pleasing. You have unlimited revisions. You simply need to highlight what specifically you don’t like about the paper, and the writer will make the amendments. The paper will be revised until you are satisfied. Revisions are free of charge
  • We will have a different writer write the paper from scratch.
  • Last resort, if the above does not work, we will refund your money.

Will the professor find out I didn’t write the paper myself?

Not at all. All papers are written from scratch. There is no way your tutor or instructor will realize that you did not write the paper yourself. In fact, we recommend using our assignment help services for consistent results.

What if the paper is plagiarized?

We check all papers for plagiarism before we submit them. We use powerful plagiarism checking software such as SafeAssign, LopesWrite, and Turnitin. We also upload the plagiarism report so that you can review it. We understand that plagiarism is academic suicide. We would not take the risk of submitting plagiarized work and jeopardize your academic journey. Furthermore, we do not sell or use prewritten papers, and each paper is written from scratch.

When will I get my paper?

You determine when you get the paper by setting the deadline when placing the order. All papers are delivered within the deadline. We are well aware that we operate in a time-sensitive industry. As such, we have laid out strategies to ensure that the client receives the paper on time and they never miss the deadline. We understand that papers that are submitted late have some points deducted. We do not want you to miss any points due to late submission. We work on beating deadlines by huge margins in order to ensure that you have ample time to review the paper before you submit it.

Will anyone find out that I used your services?

We have a privacy and confidentiality policy that guides our work. We NEVER share any customer information with third parties. Noone will ever know that you used our assignment help services. It’s only between you and us. We are bound by our policies to protect the customer’s identity and information. All your information, such as your names, phone number, email, order information, and so on, are protected. We have robust security systems that ensure that your data is protected. Hacking our systems is close to impossible, and it has never happened.

How our Assignment Help Service Works

1. Place an order

You fill all the paper instructions in the order form. Make sure you include all the helpful materials so that our academic writers can deliver the perfect paper. It will also help to eliminate unnecessary revisions.

2. Pay for the order

Proceed to pay for the paper so that it can be assigned to one of our expert academic writers. The paper subject is matched with the writer’s area of specialization.

3. Track the progress

You communicate with the writer and know about the progress of the paper. The client can ask the writer for drafts of the paper. The client can upload extra material and include additional instructions from the lecturer. Receive a paper.

4. Download the paper

The paper is sent to your email and uploaded to your personal account. You also get a plagiarism report attached to your paper.

smile and order essay GET A PERFECT SCORE!!! smile and order essay Buy Custom Essay


Place your order
(550 words)

Approximate price: $22

Calculate the price of your order

550 words
We'll send you the first draft for approval by September 11, 2018 at 10:52 AM
Total price:
$26
The price is based on these factors:
Academic level
Number of pages
Urgency
Basic features
  • Free title page and bibliography
  • Unlimited revisions
  • Plagiarism-free guarantee
  • Money-back guarantee
  • 24/7 support
On-demand options
  • Writer’s samples
  • Part-by-part delivery
  • Overnight delivery
  • Copies of used sources
  • Expert Proofreading
Paper format
  • 275 words per page
  • 12 pt Arial/Times New Roman
  • Double line spacing
  • Any citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, Harvard)

Our guarantees

Delivering a high-quality product at a reasonable price is not enough anymore.
That’s why we have developed 5 beneficial guarantees that will make your experience with our service enjoyable, easy, and safe.

Money-back guarantee

You have to be 100% sure of the quality of your product to give a money-back guarantee. This describes us perfectly. Make sure that this guarantee is totally transparent.

Read more

Zero-plagiarism guarantee

Each paper is composed from scratch, according to your instructions. It is then checked by our plagiarism-detection software. There is no gap where plagiarism could squeeze in.

Read more

Free-revision policy

Thanks to our free revisions, there is no way for you to be unsatisfied. We will work on your paper until you are completely happy with the result.

Read more

Privacy policy

Your email is safe, as we store it according to international data protection rules. Your bank details are secure, as we use only reliable payment systems.

Read more

Fair-cooperation guarantee

By sending us your money, you buy the service we provide. Check out our terms and conditions if you prefer business talks to be laid out in official language.

Read more
error: Content is protected !!
Open chat
1
Need assignment help? You can contact our live agent via WhatsApp using +1 718 717 2861

Feel free to ask questions, clarifications, or discounts available when placing an order.
  +1 718 717 2861           + 44 161 818 7126           [email protected]
  +1 718 717 2861         [email protected]